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JLPT N4 grammar

The JLPT publishes no official grammar syllabus. This 132-pattern study note is a community compilation based on the current JLPT Sensei N4 inventory (JLPT N4 Grammar List), cross-checked against Japanese Test 4 You and Tanos N4, accessed 2026-08-08. It is a practical study target, not an official list or a guarantee of test appearance.

The examples below are original study examples written for this knowledge base. They are intentionally short; consult the linked references or a full Japanese grammar reference for conjugation details, register, exceptions, and additional meanings.

The study notes after the inventory table are original explanations written for this knowledge base: what each pattern does, what form it takes, its nuance and register, the restrictions that matter at N4, and the patterns learners confuse it with.

Foundations

The patterns below build on reusable foundation pages rather than repeating the same explanations:

FoundationCoversPatterns that use it
Verb groups and conjugationverb groups, dictionary/ます/て/ない/た forms, する/来る, transitive/intransitiveば (5), 意向形 (22), られる (69), させる (74), させられる (73), 受身形 (119), compound verbs (9, 18, 68, 117), ながら (50), て-form patterns (91–107), たら (88), やすい/にくい/づらい (60, 121, 132)
Adjectives and the copulaい-adjective and な-adjective conjugation, だ/です copula, の-nominalisationくする (39), さ (71), がり/がる (15–16), そうだ/そうに (82–83), みたいだ (44), ではないか (12)
Core particlesは/が/を/に/で/へ/と/の/も/から/まで/や/か and sentence-final particlesでも (11), も (47), までに (41), まま (42), または (43), など (49), かどうか (26), の中で (61), のに (62–63), のは (64), し (77), と (108)
Numbers, counters, dates and timenumbers, 〜つ/人/時/分 counters, dates, weekdays, months, relative time頃 (33), までに (41), おきに (67), さっき (72), 六時ごろ (33), 一週間も (47)

Patterns

#PatternFormCore meaningExampleTranslation
1間(あいだ)V-ている+間; Nの間while; during; between母が料理をしている間、私は宿題をします。While my mother is cooking, I do my homework.
2間に(あいだに)V-ている+間に; Nの間にwhile; during (a point within a period)授業の間に、友達にメモを渡しました。I passed a note to my friend during class.
3あまり~ないあまり+negative verb/adjectivenot very; not muchあまりお酒を飲みません。I do not drink much alcohol.
4後で(あとで)た-form+後で; Nの後でafter; later仕事の後で、ジムに行きます。I go to the gym after work.
5V-ば/い-adj-ければ/な-adj-ならばif [A] then [B]; conditionalお金があれば、旅行に行きます。If I have money, I will go on a trip.
6場合は(ばあいは)V-plain/Nの+場合in the event of; in the case that雨の場合、試合は中止です。In the case of rain, the match is cancelled.
7ばかりNばかり/V-てばかりonly; nothing but甘いものばかり食べています。I eat nothing but sweets.
8だけでV-dictionary+だけで; Nだけでjust by; simply by doing地図を見るだけで、駅が分かります。I can find the station just by looking at the map.
9出す(だす)V-ます-stem+出すto begin to; to start to子どもが急に泣き出しました。The child suddenly started crying.
10でございますN+でございますto be (very polite)こちらが本店でございます。This is our main store.
11でもN+でもor something; how aboutコーヒーでも飲みませんか。How about a coffee or something?
12ではないかN/な-adj/V-plain+ではないかis it not?; right?これは便利なアプリではないか。Is this not a convenient app!
13が必要(がひつよう)N+が必要だneed; necessaryこの仕事には経験が必要です。Experience is necessary for this job.
14がするsense noun(匂い・音・味・気)+がするto smell; to sound; to feel台所からいい匂いがします。A nice smell is coming from the kitchen.
15がりadjective stem+がりperson who tends to; sensitive to弟は怖がりで、雷が苦手です。My younger brother is easily scared and cannot stand thunder.
16がる/がっているadj stem/〜たい+がるto show signs of; to act as if (third person)子どもたちは新しいゲームをほしがっています。The children are showing that they want the new game.
17ございますN+でございます/Nがございますto be; to exist (polite)お手洗いは二階にございます。The restroom is on the second floor.
18始める(はじめる)V-ます-stem+始めるto begin to大学を出てから、働き始めました。After graduating from university, I began working.
19はずだV-plain/い-adj/な-adj-な/Nの+はずだit should be; I expect彼はもう駅に着いているはずです。He should have already arrived at the station.
20はずがないV-plain/い-adj/な-adj-な/Nの+はずがないthere is no way; cannot beあの人がうそをつくはずがありません。There is no way that person would lie.
21必要がある(ひつようがある)V-dictionary+必要があるneed to; it is necessary to出発の前に、切符を予約する必要があります。Before departing, I need to reserve a ticket.
22意向形(いこうけい)V-volitional(書こう・食べよう・しよう)volitional form; let us do一緒に公園を散歩しよう。Let us take a walk in the park together.
23いらっしゃるhonorific for いる/来る/行くto be; to come; to go (honorific)社長は明日京都へいらっしゃいます。The president will go to Kyoto tomorrow.
24いたしますごN+いたす; V-ます-stem+いたすto do (humble)明日、ご連絡いたします。I will contact you tomorrow.
25じゃないかV-plain/N+じゃないかis it not?; let us (casual)おいしいじゃないか、このラーメン。Is this ramen not delicious!
26かどうかV-plain/い-adj/な-adj/N+かどうかwhether or not明日のパーティーに行くかどうか、まだ決めていません。I have not decided yet whether or not to go to tomorrow's party.
27かしらsentence+かしらI wonder (feminine, casual)明日は雨かしら。I wonder if it will rain tomorrow.
28かいsentence+かいquestion marker (casual)もう宿題をしたかい。Have you done your homework yet?
29かもしれないV-plain/い-adj/な-adj/N+かもしれないmight; maybe; perhaps明日は雪が降るかもしれません。It might snow tomorrow.
30かなsentence+かなI wonder; should I?彼は来るかな。I wonder if he will come.
31から作る(からつくる)N+から+作る/作られるmade from; made withこの酒は米から作られています。This sake is made from rice.
32きっときっと+affirmative/きっと〜だろうsurely; certainly彼はきっと来ますよ。He will surely come.
33頃(ころ/ごろ)時間+ごろ; V-た/N+ころaround; about; at the time of毎日六時ごろ起きます。I get up around six every day.
34ことV-dictionary+ことverb nominaliser毎朝運動することが大切です。Exercising every morning is important.
35ことがあるV-dictionary+ことがあるthere are times when; sometimes夜、眠れないことがあります。There are times when I cannot sleep at night.
36ことができるV-dictionary+ことができるcan; be able to日本語で手紙を書くことができます。I can write a letter in Japanese.
37ことになるV-dictionary/ない+ことになるit has been decided that; it turns out that来月、東京に転勤することになりました。It has been decided that I will be transferred to Tokyo next month.
38ことにするV-dictionary/ない+ことにするto decide to毎日早く起きることにしました。I decided to get up early every day.
39くするい-adj(い→く)+するto make it X; to adjustラジオの音を小さくしました。I turned the radio down.
40急に(きゅうに)急に+verbsuddenly; abruptly急にドアの音がしました。Suddenly there was a noise at the door.
41までにV-dictionary/N+までにby; by the time金曜日までにレポートを出してください。Please submit the report by Friday.
42ままV-た/V-ない/Nの+ままas it is; unchanged電気をつけたまま寝てしまいました。I fell asleep with the light left on.
43またはAまたはBor; otherwiseメールまたは電話でご連絡ください。Please contact us by email or phone.
44みたいだN/な-adj/V-plain+みたいだlooks like; similar to; seemsあの雲は羊みたいだ。That cloud looks like a sheep.
45みたいなN+みたいなNlike; similar to (attributive)映画みたいな話を聞きました。I heard a story like something out of a movie.
46みたいにN+みたいに+verblike; similar to (adverbial)鳥みたいに空を飛びたいです。I want to fly in the sky like a bird.
47quantity+もas many as; as much asこの本は一週間もかかりました。This book took as long as a week.
48V-dictionary+なdo not (prohibition)ここにゴミを捨てるな。Do not throw garbage here.
49などN+などsuch as; things like週末は映画や買い物などをして過ごします。On weekends I spend time doing things like watching movies and shopping.
50ながらV-ます-stem+ながらwhile; simultaneously音楽を聞きながら走ります。I run while listening to music.
51なかなか~ないなかなか+negativenot easily; will not電車がなかなか来ません。The train just will not come.
52なければいけないV-ない(→なけれ)+ばいけないmust; have to明日は早く起きなければいけません。I have to get up early tomorrow.
53なければならないV-ない(→なけれ)+ばならないmust; have to学生は制服を着なければなりません。Students must wear uniforms.
54ならV-plain/い-adj/な-adj/N+ならif; in the case of安いなら、買います。If it is cheap, I will buy it.
55なさいV-ます-stem+なさいdo this (command)早く寝なさい。Go to bed now.
56なさるごN+なさる; V-ます-stem+なさるto do (honorific)お客さま、何をなさいますか。What would you like to do, sir?
57に気がつく(にきがつく)N+に気がつくto notice; to realiseまちがいに気がつきました。I noticed the mistake.
58に見える(にみえる)N/な-adj+に見える; い-adj-く見えるto look; to seem; to appear彼女は元気に見えます。She looks energetic.
59にするN/な-adj+にするto make it X; to decide onコーヒーにします。I will have coffee.
60にくいV-ます-stem+にくいdifficult to doこの靴は歩きにくいです。These shoes are hard to walk in.
61の中で(のなかで)Nの中で+一番in; amongスポーツの中で何が一番好きですか。Which sport do you like best?
62のに (concessive)V-plain/な-adj-な/Nな+のにeven though; in spite of病気なのに、仕事に行きました。Even though he was sick, he went to work.
63のに (purpose)V-dictionary+のにin order to; for the purpose of駅へ行くのに、どのバスに乗ればいいですか。Which bus should I take to go to the station?
64のは〜だV-plain+のは+N/の+だ[A] is [B]; the reason is日本語が難しいのは、漢字があるからだ。The reason Japanese is hard is that it has kanji.
65お~くださいお+V-ます-stem+くださいplease do (polite)こちらにお名前をお書きください。Please write your name here.
66お~になるお+V-ます-stem+になるto do (honorific)先生は何時にお帰りになりますか。What time will you return, teacher?
67おきにN+おきにat intervals of; every otherこの薬は三時間おきに飲んでください。Please take this medicine every three hours.
68終わる(おわる)V-ます-stem+終わるto finish doing昼ご飯を食べ終わったら、散歩します。After finishing lunch, I will take a walk.
69られるGroup 1: 書く→書ける; Group 2: stem+られる(食べる→食べられる)potential; can辛い料理が食べられますか。Can you eat spicy food?
70らしいV-plain/い-adj/な-adj/N+らしいseems; apparently; I heard明日は雨らしいです。Apparently it will rain tomorrow.
71い-adj(い→さ)/な-adj+さ-ness; nominaliserこの道の長さは何キロですか。How many kilometres long is this road?
72さっきさっき+past verba little while ago; just nowさっき駅で友達に会いました。I ran into a friend at the station a little while ago.
73させられるGroup 1: 書く→書かせられる; Group 2: 食べる→食べさせられるto be made to do両親に毎日野菜を食べさせられました。I was made to eat vegetables every day.
74させるGroup 1: 書く→書かせる; Group 2: 食べる→食べさせるto make or let someone do娘に毎日ピアノを練習させています。I make my daughter practise piano every day.
75させてくださいV-ない-stem+させてくださいplease let me do質問をさせてください。Please let me ask a question.
76さすがさすが+N/さすがにas one would expect; evenさすが田中さん、いいアイデアですね。As expected of Tanaka, that is a good idea.
77V-plain/い-adj/な-adj-だ+しand; and what is moreこのアパートは静かだし、駅にも近いです。This apartment is quiet, and it is also close to the station.
78そんなにそんなに+adjective/verbso; that muchそんなに高くないです。It is not that expensive.
79それでもsentence+それでもeven so; but still難しいです。それでも、頑張ります。It is difficult. Even so, I will do my best.
80それにsentence+それにbesides; moreoverこの店は安いです。それに、とてもおいしいです。This shop is cheap. Moreover, it is very tasty.
81そうだ (hearsay)V-plain/い-adj/な-adjだ/Nだ+そうだI heard that; it is said that天気予報によると、明日は晴れるそうです。According to the weather forecast, it will be sunny tomorrow.
82そうだ (appearance)V-ます-stem/adj stem+そうだlooks like; appearsこのケーキはおいしそうです。This cake looks delicious.
83そうに/そうなV-ます-stem/adj stem+そうに/そうなseeming; looking (before verb/noun)彼は楽しそうに話しています。He is talking as if he is having fun.
84たばかりV-た+ばかりjust finished; just didさっきご飯を食べたばかりです。I just ate a moment ago.
85たところV-た+ところjust finished doing今、着いたところです。I have just arrived.
86他動詞 & 自動詞(たどうし & じどうし)transitive (を+他動詞)/intransitive (が+自動詞)transitive and intransitive verbs先生がドアを開けました。ドアが開きました。The teacher opened the door. The door opened.
87たがるV-ます-stem+たがるwants to (third person)息子は外で遊びたがっています。My son wants to play outside.
88たらV-た+らif; when; after家に着いたら、電話してください。Please call me when you get home.
89たらどうV-た+らどうwhy do you not; how about一度病院へ行ったらどうですか。Why do you not go to the hospital once?
90たらいいですかV-た+らいいですかwhat should I do駅へはどう行ったらいいですか。How should I get to the station?
91て/でて-form (conjunctive)so; and; because of時間がなくて、昼ご飯を食べませんでした。I had no time, so I did not eat lunch.
92てあげるて-form+あげるto do for (someone)妹に宿題を教えてあげました。I helped my little sister with her homework.
93てほしいて-form+ほしいI want you toもっと説明してほしいです。I want you to explain more.
94ていくて-form+いくto continue; to go onこれからも日本語の勉強を続けていきます。I will keep on studying Japanese from now on.
95ていたて-form+いたwas doing (past continuous)昨日の九時に何をしていましたか。What were you doing at nine yesterday?
96ていただけませんかて-form+いただけませんかcould you pleaseもう一度言っていただけませんか。Could you please say that once more?
97てくれるて-form+くれるto do for me/us友達が写真を撮ってくれました。A friend took a photo for me.
98てくるて-form+くるdo and come back; to become; to beginちょっと水を買ってきます。I will go buy some water and come right back.
99てみるて-form+みるtry doing一度刺身を食べてみたいです。I want to try eating sashimi once.
100てもらうて-form+もらうto get someone to do友達に荷物を持ってもらいました。I had a friend carry my luggage.
101ておくて-form+おくto do in advance旅行の前にホテルを予約しておきます。I will reserve a hotel before the trip.
102てしまう/ちゃうて-form+しまう/ちゃうto end up; to finish completely財布を忘れてしまいました。I ended up forgetting my wallet.
103てすみませんて-form+すみませんsorry for遅れてすみません。Sorry for being late.
104てやるて-form+やるto do for (casual)弟に本を買ってやりました。I bought a book for my little brother.
105てよかったて-form+よかったI am glad that先生に聞いてよかったです。I am glad I asked the teacher.
106ているところV-ている+ところin the process of doing今、料理をしているところです。I am in the middle of cooking right now.
107てもて-form+もeven if; even though高くても、買いたいです。Even if it is expensive, I want to buy it.
108V-dictionary+とwhenever [A], then [B]春になると、花が咲きます。When spring comes, flowers bloom.
109と言ってもいい(といってもいい)V-plain+と言ってもいいyou could say; it is fair to say彼は天才と言ってもいいです。You could say he is a genius.
110というphrase+というNcalled; named; that田中という人から電話がありました。There was a phone call from a person named Tanaka.
111ということV-plain+ということthe fact that; that彼が結婚するということを聞きました。I heard the news that he is getting married.
112と言われている(といわれている)V-plain+と言われているit is said thatこの寺は三百年前に建てられたと言われています。It is said that this temple was built 300 years ago.
113と聞いた(ときいた)V-plain+と聞いたI heard that彼女はピアノが上手だと聞きました。I heard that she is good at the piano.
114と思う(とおもう)V-plain+と思うI think that明日は忙しいと思います。I think tomorrow will be busy.
115とか~とかN/V-plain+とか〜とかthings like; such as休みの日は、映画を見るとか買い物をするとかしています。On days off I do things like watching movies or going shopping.
116ところV-dictionary+ところjust about to; on the verge of今から家を出るところです。I am just about to leave home.
117続ける(つづける)V-ます-stem+続けるto keep doing; to continue雨が一晩中降り続けました。It kept raining all night.
118ってV-plain+って; Nってcalled; I heard (casual quotative)佐藤って人に会いました。I met a person called Sato.
119受身形(うけみけい)Group 1: ない-stem+れる(書く→書かれる); Group 2: stem+られる(食べる→食べられる)passive voice私は先生にほめられました。I was praised by the teacher.
120は〜が… はXは〜が、Yは…[A] but [B]; comparisonりんごは好きですが、みかんは好きじゃありません。I like apples, but I do not like mandarins.
121やすいV-ます-stem+やすいeasy to; tends toこのペンは書きやすいです。This pen is easy to write with.
122やっとやっと+verbat last; finallyやっと宿題が終わりました。I finally finished my homework.
123よりN+よりthan; rather than電車はバスより速いです。The train is faster than the bus.
124予定だ(よていだ)V-dictionary/N+予定だplan to; intend to来週、大阪へ行く予定です。I plan to go to Osaka next week.
125ようだV-plain/い-adj/な-adj-な/Nの+ようだseems; appears彼は今、忙しいようです。He seems to be busy right now.
126ように / ようなNの/な-adj-な+ように/ような; V-plain+ようにlike; as; similar to彼のように英語を話したいです。I want to speak English like him.
127ようになるV-dictionary/ない+ようになるto come to be; to become able to毎日練習して、泳げるようになりました。I practised every day and became able to swim.
128ようにするV-dictionary+ようにするto try to; to make sure to毎朝、早く起きるようにしています。I try to get up early every morning.
129ようと思う(ようとおもう)V-volitional+と思うto be thinking of doing来年、日本へ留学しようと思います。I am thinking of studying in Japan next year.
130ぜひぜひ+request/offerby all means; certainlyぜひ遊びに来てください。Please do come and visit.
131全然~ない(ぜんぜん~ない)全然+negativenot at allこの問題は全然分かりません。I do not understand this problem at all.
132づらいV-ます-stem+づらいdifficult to doこの字は読みづらいです。This writing is hard to read.

Coverage note

The 132 entries keep the JLPT Sensei inventory numbering and ordering (romanised alphabetical order), so items are not grouped by theme in the table itself. The grouping in the study notes below is for navigation, not an official count. Some caveats:

  • Community classification. There is no official JLPT grammar syllabus, so any N4 grammar list is a community target. JLPT Sensei places all 132 items at N4; other curricula move some of them: the causative, passive and potential forms (73–74, 119, 69), ことになる/ことにする (37–38) and ようになる (127) are frequently taught as N3 in other textbooks.
  • Overlap with N5. Several items also appear on the N5 page because community lists disagree: あまり~ない (3), 後で (4), ながら (50), より (123), 全然~ない (131) and と思う (114) recur at N4. They are retained here as the inventory lists them, with cross-references to the N5 notes.
  • Same spelling, different senses. のに (62–63) and そうだ (81–82) each cover two genuinely distinct functions; they are kept as separate rows with disambiguating labels so neither sense is lost.
  • Form and vocabulary categories. A few rows are conjugation categories (意向形 22, 受身形 119, 他動詞&自動詞 86) or near-vocabulary items (急に 40, きっと 32, さっき 72, さすが 76, やっと 122, ぜひ 130); they are included because the inventory counts them as grammar lessons.

Study notes

The table above is the inventory; the notes below are the study layer. They are original explanations written for this knowledge base, grounded in the inventory and the foundation pages (verb groups and conjugation, adjectives and the copula, particles, numbers and dates). Each note answers: what the pattern does, what form it attaches to, what nuance or register it carries, what restrictions matter at N4, what learners commonly confuse it with, and which related patterns to compare. Where a conjugation rule is involved, the note links to the foundation page instead of repeating it.

1–2. 間(あいだ)and 間に(あいだに)— "during" frames

  • names the whole period: V-ている+間/Nの間 — 母が料理をしている間、 私は宿題をします ("while my mother cooks, I do my homework"). The clause describes something that goes on for the entire span.
  • 間に marks a point that happens within that span: V-ている/Nの+間に — 授業の間に、友達にメモを渡しました ("I passed a note during class").
  • Watch out: with 間 the whole time is occupied; with 間に the event is momentary. 留守の間 (= throughout the absence) vs 留守の間に (= at some moment while away). 間 also means "between": AとBの間.
  • Compare: ながら (50) needs a single subject; 間 does not.

3, 51, 131. あまり~ない, なかなか~ない, 全然~ない — negative adverbs

  • These three all demand a negative predicate: あまり+negative = "not very" (あまりお酒を飲みません); なかなか+negative = "not easily / just will not" (電車がなかなか来ません); 全然+negative = "not at all" (全然分かりません).
  • Register: なかなか〜ない is an effort/expectation mismatch — the train ought to come but does not; あまり〜ない is mild degree; 全然〜ない is emphatic and, in casual speech, now also appears with positives (全然いい = "totally fine"), but the test form is negative.
  • Watch out: all three appear in the N5 list too (あまり 35, 全然 36); treating them as fully N4-level items would mislead. Using any with an affirmative predicate (*あまり好きです) is the classic error.

4. 後で — "after"

  • た-form+後で/Nの後で = "after": 仕事の後で、ジムに行きます.
  • Watch out: 後で takes the た-form (食べた後で), unlike 前に which takes the dictionary form (食べる前に, N5 69). Also covered on the N5 page (70); the two pages keep it in both inventories because curricula disagree.

5–6. ば and 場合は — conditionals and "in case"

  • is the conditional suffix: group 1 verbs change the final う-row syllable to え-row (書く→書けば, 行く→行けば); group 2 verbs drop る (食べる→食べれば); する→すれば, 来る→来れば. い-adjectives take ければ (高ければ), な-adjectives take ならば. Meaning: "if [A] then [B]" — お金があれば、旅行に行きます.
  • 場合は = "in the case that; in the event of": V-plain/Nの+場合 — 雨の場合、試合は中止です. It is a noun (場合 = "case") followed by は, so it combines with に/の freely (場合によっては = "depending on the case").
  • Compare: ば, たら (88), なら (54) and と (108) all translate "if" but differ in nuance: と for natural/consequent facts, ば for general conditions, たら for concrete when/after, なら for the "given that" case.
  • Watch out: ば has a real restriction, but it depends on the ば-clause predicate, not on the main clause alone. A volitional main clause (request / command / desire / invitation: ください, ましょう, たい) is generally unnatural when the ば-clause expresses a controllable action by the same person — *勉強すれば、遊んでください is odd; 勉強したら、遊んでください is the natural form. When the ば-clause is a state or a non-controllable condition (ある, 分かる, adjectives, or a different-subject condition), requests and wishes are perfectly natural: 質問があれば、聞いてください; 時間があれば、来てください; 安ければ、買いたいです. So the restriction is about a same-agent controllable action in the ば-clause, not about ば+request in general.

7–8. ばかり and だけで — restriction

  • Nばかり/V-てばかり = "only; nothing but": 甘いものばかり食べています. Register: slightly critical — it implies an exclusive, often excessive habit.
  • だけで = "just by; simply by": V-dictionary/N+だけで — 地図を見るだけで、駅が分かります.
  • Watch out: ばかり also appears in たばかり (84, "just did") — the bare ばかり is the "only" reading. だけ (N5 17) is neutral "only"; ばかり adds the "that and nothing else" colour. だけで vs だけ: the で marks the means or minimally-sufficient condition.

9, 18, 68, 117. Compound verbs: 出す, 始める, 終わる, 続ける

  • Four verb-second suffixes built on the ます-stem (see the verbs foundation):
    • 出す = "suddenly begin to": 泣き出す, 走り出す, 降り出す (9).
    • 始める = "begin to": 働き始める, 読み始める (18).
    • 終わる = "finish doing": 食べ終わる, 読み終わる (68).
    • 続ける = "keep doing": 降り続ける, 書き続ける (117).
  • Watch out: the stem, not the dictionary form (*食べる始める is wrong). 出す colours the start as abrupt/unexpected; 始める is neutral.

10, 17. でございます and ございます — very polite copula and existence

  • N+でございます is the extra-polite copula used in shop and service speech: こちらが本店でございます ("this is our main store").
  • ございます is the polite counterpart of ある (existence/possession): お手洗いは二階にございます.
  • Register: both are 丁寧語 (politeness language) — they make the whole utterance more courteous rather than elevating a specific person the way 尊敬語 does (いらっしゃる, なさる). They belong to commercial/service speech; recognise them on the test, use sparingly. でございます replaces です, never follows it (*ですでございます is wrong).

11. でも — "or something"

  • N+でも = "or something / how about": コーヒーでも飲みませんか ("how about a coffee or something?"). It softens an offer by leaving the choice open.
  • Watch out: this is the N+でも "such as" reading — a different pattern from the sentence-initial contrastive でも "but" (N5 21). 何でも/どこでも ("anything/anywhere") extend the same shape.

12, 25. ではないか and じゃないか — "isn't it?"

  • ではないか/じゃないか after a noun or plain form adds a rhetorical "isn't it?" — expecting agreement or expressing realisation: これは便利なアプリではないか; おいしいじゃないか、このラーメン.
  • With a falling tone, rising じゃないか can also propose "let's" in casual speech: 行こうじゃないか.
  • Register: ではないか is the written/formal shape; じゃないか is spoken. Note the pattern is negative in form but positive in effect — it asserts the opposite of what it literally says.

13, 21. が必要 and 必要がある — necessity

  • N+が必要だ = "is necessary / needs": この仕事には経験が必要です.
  • V-dictionary+必要がある = "need to do": 切符を予約する必要があります.
  • Compare: なければいけない/なければならない (52–53) are the stronger obligation forms; 必要がある is matter-of-fact. In conversation the contraction 〜なくちゃ/〜なきゃ (from なくては/なければ) is common but informal.

14. がする — sensory perception

  • Sense noun+がする reports a sensation: 匂い (smell), 音 (sound), 味 (taste), 寒気 (chill), 気がする ("feel that"). 台所からいい匂いがします.
  • Watch out: the noun is the subject (marked が), and the set is fixed — 音がする, 味がする, 気がする. You cannot freely substitute nouns. 気がする ("have a feeling that") is worth learning as a set phrase.

15–16. がり and がる/がっている — expressing others' feelings

  • Japanese strongly prefers stating the speaker's own feelings directly with たい/ほしい and describing a third person's feelings as visible behaviour; in conversation people also report others' wishes with と言っている, but the standard test form for "he/she seems to feel X" is a visible-sign suffix:
    • Adjective stem+がり names the person/trait: 寒がり ("one who feels the cold"), 怖がり ("one who is easily scared") — 弟は怖がりです.
    • Adjective stem+がる/がっている turns the feeling into an observable behaviour: ほしがる ("act as if one wants"), 寒がる ("show signs of being cold"), 楽しがる. 子どもたちは新しいゲームをほしがっています.
  • Watch out: たい (N5 51) is the speaker's own wish; describing another person's wish directly with たい sounds like the speaker is speaking for them, so learners normally use 遊びたがっている (87) or ようだ instead. がる keeps the adjective stem, not the い (寒がる, not 寒いがる).

19–20, 29, 32. はずだ, はずがない, かもしれない, きっと — expectation, possibility, certainty

  • はずだ (plain form/な-adj-な/Nの+はずだ) states an expectation from logic or prior information: 彼はもう着いているはずです ("he should already be there"). はずがない is its emphatic denial: うそをつくはずがありません ("there is no way he would lie").
  • かもしれない (plain form/な-adj/N+かもしれない) is soft possibility: 明日は雪が降るかもしれません. It replaces だ/です, never follows it (*学生だかもしれない is the spoken slip; correct: 学生かもしれない).
  • きっと = "surely", usually with a confident assertion or 〜だろう: 彼はきっと来ます.
  • Watch out: はず has a basis in evidence; かもしれない is pure uncertainty; きっと asserts. はずがありません vs はずがない — same pattern, polite negative. The politeness switch is on the final copula: はずです → はずがありません.

22. 意向形 — the volitional form

  • The volitional form expresses intention/invitation "let's ~": group 1 verbs change the final う-row syllable to おう (書く→書こう), group 2 drop る and add よう (食べる→食べよう), する→しよう, 来る→来よう. 一緒に散歩しよう.
  • Polite: ましょう (N5 57) is the polite volitional — 散歩しましょう.
  • Watch out: the volitional is also the building block of ようと思う (129). Intonation decides invitation vs determination.

23–24, 56, 65–66. 敬語 — honorific and humble patterns

  • Honorific (someone else's action):
    • いらっしゃる — honorific of いる/来る/行く (23): 社長は京都へいらっしゃいます.
    • なさる — honorific of する (56): 何をなさいますか.
    • お〜になる — お+ます-stem+になる (66): お帰りになります.
    • お〜ください — お+ます-stem+ください, polite request (65): お書きください.
  • Humble (your own action): いたします — humble of する (24): ご連絡いたします.
  • Watch out: honorific and humble point in opposite directions: なさる/ お〜になる raise the listener's action; いたす lowers the speaker's. お〜ください takes the ます-stem (お帰りください, not お帰ってください). ご vs お depends on the word (ご連絡, お名前); learn each set phrase.

26–28, 30. かどうか, かしら, かい, かな — questions and wonderings

  • かどうか embeds "whether or not" inside a clause: 行くかどうか、まだ 決めていません. The embedded clause is not a question anymore.
  • かしら (casual, feminine-leaning) and かな (casual, neutral) mean "I wonder": 明日は雨かしら / 彼は来るかな.
  • かい is a casual yes/no-question particle (often fatherly/masculine): もう宿題をしたかい.
  • Register: all are casual or informal; none belongs in careful classroom speech except かどうか. かしら has a distinct feminine flavour; かい is markedly informal.

31. から作る — "made from"

  • N+から+作る/作られる = "made from/with": この酒は米から作られています. The passive 作られています is the natural form when talking about products.
  • Watch out: から marks the raw material; for "made of/out of" で and から both appear, but から emphasises the source material (rice → sake). Do not confuse this から ("from") with the reason から (N5 73).

33. 頃(ころ/ごろ)— "around; when"

  • Time word+ごろ = approximate clock time: 六時ごろ, 三時半ごろ.
  • N/た-form+ころ = "around the time of / when": 子どもの頃 ("when I was a child"), 大学生だった頃.
  • Watch out: ごろ (with times of day) vs ころ (with other nouns) — a common point of confusion. 六時ごろまで ("until about six") is perfectly normal; the particle まで follows the whole approximate time phrase.

34–38. こと patterns

  • V-dictionary+こと nominalises a verb: 毎朝運動することが大切です.
  • ことがある (dictionary form) = "there are times when": 眠れないことが あります. Contrast with たことがある (N5 50) "have done before".
  • ことができる = "can": 日本語で手紙を書くことができます. (See られる 69 for the verb-level potential.)
  • ことになる = external decision / it turns out: 転勤することになりました.
  • ことにする = self decision: 早く起きることにしました.
  • Watch out: こと (34) vs の nominaliser (N5 78): こと is more abstract/ formal, の is concrete and personal — 泳ぐことは健康にいい vs 泳ぐのは楽しい. ことになる/ことにする take the dictionary or ない form (行かないことにした). ことになる is decided by others/situation; ことにする is your own choice.

39, 59. くする and にする — "make it X" and "choose X"

  • い-adjective (い→く)+する = "make it X": 音を小さくする ("turn the sound down"). N/な-adj+にする = "make it X / decide on": コーヒーに します ("I'll have coffee").
  • Compare: になる (N5 67) is "become" (intransitive); する is the deliberate act. ことにする (38) is "decide to do"; にする is "choose as the option".
  • Watch out: い-adjectives take く (小さくする), な-adjectives and nouns take に (静かにする, 水にする).

40, 72, 122, 130. Adverbs: 急に, さっき, やっと, ぜひ

  • 急に = "suddenly, abruptly" (with a change of state): 急にドアの音がしました.
  • さっき = "a little while ago" (with a past verb): さっき駅で友達に会いました.
  • やっと = "at last, finally" (after delay): やっと宿題が終わりました.
  • ぜひ = "by all means" (with a request or offer): ぜひ遊びに来てください.
  • Watch out: さっき is "moments ago" (not "just now" as in this second — that is 今; たところ 85 does "just did"); やっと carries effort/delay, unlike plain ついに/ようやく in higher levels. ぜひ sets up an emphatic invitation — it pairs with ください/ましょう.

41–43. までに, まま, または — deadline, unchanged state, alternatives

  • までに = "by (deadline)": 金曜日までに. Contrast まで (N5 13) "until", which allows the action throughout; までに requires completion by the point. 六時までに働く (must be done working by six) vs 六時まで働く (work until six).
  • まま = "as it is; unchanged": 電気をつけたまま寝ました ("slept with the light on"). Takes た-form or ない-form (靴を脱がないまま, 食べずに…), or Nの (このまま = "as is").
  • または = "or" between alternatives: メールまたは電話で. More formal than か (N5 16); または usually joins two options in one sentence.
  • Watch out: まま with た-form states a completed action kept ongoing; with ない-form, "without having done": 朝ご飯を食べないまま学校へ行った (≈ 食べないで, N5 47).

44–46. みたいだ, みたいな, みたいに — casual "like"

  • N/な-adj/V-plain+みたいだ = "looks like; similar to": あの雲は羊みたいだ, 静かみたいだ ("seems quiet"). みたいな modifies nouns (映画みたいな話), みたいに modifies verbs (鳥みたいに飛ぶ).
  • Register: みたい is the casual, everyday member of the "like/seem" family; ようだ (125) is more formal/literary; そうだ (82) is appearance from direct observation; らしい (70) is judgement from information.
  • Watch out: with みたい, no の after nouns (羊みたい, not 羊のみたい); みたい conjugates like a な-adjective (みたいな, みたいに). Compare ように/ような (126), which keep の: 彼のように.

47. も — "as many as"

  • Quantity+も normally marks a surprisingly large amount: この本は一週間も かかりました ("this book took a whole week"), 三時間も待った ("I waited three whole hours"). The surprise is usually "so much", often with も in the sentence too.
  • Compare: the additive も "also" (N5 11) is a different morpheme. With the emphasis reading, contrast the amount scale directly: 三日もかかった ("it took as long as three days" — surprisingly long) vs 三日しかかからなかった ("it took only three days" — surprisingly short) vs たった三日で終わった ("it finished in a mere three days"). The same number reads as "large" or "small" purely from the surrounding も/しか/たった.

48. な — "don't" (prohibition)

  • V-dictionary+な = "don't do ~" (direct prohibition): ここにゴミを捨てるな. Very abrupt; mostly found in signs, warnings, and imperative speech.
  • Compare: ないでください (N5 42) is polite; てはいけない (N5 45) is the rule-style prohibition; な is the blunt command. なさい (55) is the positive counterpart in register.

49. など — "such as"

  • N+など = "and so on; things like": 映画や買い物など. It makes a list non-exhaustive, like や (N5 14).
  • Watch out: など also has a humble self-deprecating use (私など = "someone like me"); at N4 recognise that use without producing it. With verbs, とか〜とか (115) is the looser spoken equivalent.

50. ながら — "while"

  • V-ます-stem+ながら = "while doing" — one subject for both actions, main action last: 音楽を聞きながら走ります. Also on the N5 page (75).
  • Watch out: ながら with the ない-stem (ないながら) is a different, higher- level pattern; at N4 use the ます-stem.

52–53. なければいけない and なければならない — obligation

  • Both = "must; have to", built on the ない-form→なけれ+ば: 起きなければいけません / 着なければなりません.
  • Register: なければならない is slightly more formal/rules-flavoured; なければいけない is everyday. In conversation they contract to なきゃ (行か なきゃ) and なくちゃ.
  • Compare: ないといけない (N5 48) is the same strength. Negative answer to a "must" question is なければならないことはない / なくてもいい (N5 44 てもいい).

54. なら — "if"

  • V-plain/い-adj/な-adj/N+なら = "if; given that": 安いなら、買います; 静かなら、ここがいいです; 大学生なら、これが分かるでしょう.
  • Watch out: なら is the "given that" conditional — it takes the plain form and works after nouns directly (学生なら). たら (88) is "if/when (after the event)"; ば (5) is general condition. なら is also used to pick up a topic: コーヒーなら、ここにあります ("coffee — there's some here").

55. なさい — "do this"

  • V-ます-stem+なさい = a firm command from a parent/teacher: 早く寝なさい.
  • Register: between ください (polite) and 〜て (blunt) — soft/firm imperative. Rarely used between equals; recognise it rather than produce it with superiors.

57. に気がつく — "to notice"

  • N+に気がつく = "notice/realise": まちがいに気がつきました. The object is marked with に, not を.
  • Watch out: 気がつく vs 気づく — 気づく is the colloquial contracted verb (気づきました). 気をつける ("be careful") is a different set phrase.

58. に見える — "to look"

  • N/な-adj+に見える; い-adj (い→く)+見える = "looks, seems (by eye)": 元気に見えます, 若く見えます.
  • Compare: そうだ (82) = appearance from direct observation of the thing; に見える = the viewer's judgement; ようだ (125) = broader inference; らしい (70) = based on information/hearsay.

60, 121, 132. にくい, やすい, づらい — ease and difficulty suffixes

  • Three adjective-like suffixes on the ます-stem:
    • にくい = "hard to": 歩きにくい, 分かりにくい (60).
    • やすい = "easy to; prone to": 書きやすい, 壊れやすい (121).
    • づらい = "hard to" (subjective/painful to do): 読みづらい, 言いづらい (132).
  • Register: にくい and やすい are objective-ish; づらい carries personal reluctance — 言いづらい = "hard (embarrassing) to say".
  • Watch out: all three conjugate as い-adjectives (分かりにくいです, 分かりにくかった). Use the ます-stem, not the dictionary form (*書くやすい is wrong). やすい with states describes tendency (壊れやすい "breakable"), not just ease.

61. の中で — "among"

  • Nの中で+一番 = "among X, (the most)": スポーツの中で何が一番好きですか. の中で marks the group the superlative applies to.
  • Watch out: use の中で for a group you are inside; の間で (with people, "among them") and の中で (spatial "inside") are adjacent readings. The superlative 一番 (N5 32) usually follows.

62–63. のに — two senses, two forms

  • Concessive (62): V-plain/な-adj-な/Nな+のに = "even though": 病気なのに、仕事に行きました. Expects an unexpected, often disappointing result. The plain form includes the past tense freely: 昨日は時間があったのに、 何もしませんでした ("even though I had time yesterday, I did nothing").
  • Purpose (63): V-dictionary+のに = "in order to; for (the purpose of)": 駅へ行くのに、どのバスに乗ればいいですか. The の nominalises the verb, に marks purpose/use.
  • Watch out: these are genuinely different constructions that share the spelling のに. The concessive takes the plain form — past or non-past — and works after な-adjectives/nouns with な; the purpose form takes the dictionary form and cannot appear sentence-finally in the のに〜だ shape. のに (concessive) is not ので (N5 72): のに implies contrast, ので states the cause.

64. のは〜だ — cleft sentences

  • V-plain+のは+N/の+だ puts the focus on the predicate: 日本語が難しい のは、漢字があるからだ ("the reason Japanese is hard is that it has kanji").
  • This is the の nominaliser (N5 78) + は topic + だ copula. Also seen as 〜のはXです (it is X that ~).
  • Watch out: the complement can be a noun, an adjective, or a full reason clause (from から); learners overuse it, but in speech 〜からだ answers どうして questions very naturally.

67. おきに — "at intervals"

  • N+おきに = "every (with that gap between)": 三時間おきに ("every three hours"), 一日おきに ("every other day").
  • Watch out: おきに vs ごとに. 一日おきに counts the gap — one day skipped in between, so every other day. 一日ごとに counts each unit — "every single day". The classic pitfall: 二日おきに = every two days (a two-day gap → every third day), while 二日ごとに = every two days, day after day, no gap.

69, 73–74, 119. Verb voice: potential られる, causative させる, causative-passive させられる, passive 受身形

  • Potential (69): group 1 verbs change the final う-row syllable to the え-row and add る (書く→書ける, 話す→話せる); group 2 verbs add られる to the stem (食べる→食べられる); する→できる, 来る→来られる. Meaning "can": 辛い料理が食べられますか. The group 1 potential is not the ない-stem+れる (that produces the passive 書かれる, not 書ける).
  • Causative (74): group 1 verbs take せる on the ない-stem (書く→書かせる), group 2 take させる (食べる→食べさせる); meaning "make/let someone do": 娘にピアノを練習させています. Do not stack 書かせる as *書かさせる (the せる already carries the causative for group 1).
  • Causative-passive (73): the causative plus られる — 書く→書かせられる, 食べる→食べさせられる; "be made to do": 野菜を食べさせられました.
  • Passive (119): group 1 ない-stem+れる (書く→書かれる), group 2 stem+られる (食べる→食べられる); "is done (by someone)": 先生にほめられました. The actor is marked with に. There are two kinds. The direct passive turns a transitive object into the subject (財布を盗まれた "my wallet was stolen"). The indirect/adversity passive also exists on intransitive verbs and expresses that the speaker was affected, usually negatively: 雨に降られた ("I got rained on"), 子どもに泣かれた ("my child cried on me"). At N4 the direct passive is the core; the adversity passive is worth meeting through common examples like 雨に降られた rather than as a rule — but it exists, so do not assume passives are always transitive-based.
  • Watch out: for group 2 the same られる form serves potential and passive (食べられる = "can eat" or "is eaten"); context decides the reading. For group 1 the forms are distinct — 書ける (potential), 書かれる (passive), 書かせる (causative), 書かせられる (causative-passive) — so the ない-stem is the base for 〜せる/〜させる/〜れる (書かれる = 書か+れる), while potential uses the え-row — see the verbs foundation. させられる (73) is the "made to do"; contrast させてください (75), the polite request to be allowed.

70, 81–83, 125–126. Evidentials: らしい, そうだ (two), そうに/そうな, ようだ, ように/ような

  • そうだ (hearsay, 81): plain form+そうだ = "I heard": 明日は晴れる そうです. Note: no change to ます-stem; takes the plain form, and polite endings stay in the quoted clause (晴れるそうです, not 晴れますそうです). After a noun or な-adjective the plain copula だ must be kept: 学生だそうだ, 静かだそうだ (not *学生そうだ).
  • そうだ (appearance, 82): ます-stem/adjective stem+そうだ = "looks": おいしそうです, 雨が降りそうです. い-adjectives drop い (おいしそう), but いい →よさそう and ない→なさそう (irregular). そうに/そうな (83) are its adverbial/attributive forms: 楽しそうに話す, おいしそうなケーキ.
  • ようだ (125): plain form/な-adj-な/Nの+ようだ = inference "seems": 忙しいようです, 静かなようです. ように/ような (126) are the adverbial/ attributive forms: 彼のように, 雪のような白い花. Keeps の after nouns (彼のようです) and な after な-adjectives (静かなようです).
  • らしい (70): plain form/な-adj/N+らしい = hearsay/apparent: 明日は雨らしい, 学生らしい ("apparently a student"). Also "typical of": 日本らしい ("quintessentially Japanese") — note the bare noun takes らしい directly, no の.
  • Watch out: the two そうだ are different constructions with different input forms — hearsay = plain form (食べるそうです), appearance = stem (食べそうです, おいしそうです). みたいだ (44) is the casual sibling of ようだ. See also に見える (58).

71. さ — adjective nominaliser "-ness"

  • い-adjective (い→さ)/な-adj+さ turns the quality into a noun: 高さ (height), 長さ (length), 便利さ (convenience).
  • Watch out: this is the quality nominaliser, distinct from こと/の verb nominalisers (34, N5 78). さ is productive with both adjective classes but not freely with every word — learn common ones (高さ, 長さ, 重さ, 大きさ).

75. させてください — "please let me"

  • V-ない-stem+させてください = "please let me do": 質問をさせてください. It is the causative (74) + てください request.
  • Watch out: group 1 verbs use せて (行かせてください), group 2 use させて (食べさせてください). Contrast させられる (73) "be made to do" — permission vs compulsion.

76. さすが — "as expected"

  • さすが+N = "as one would expect of": さすが田中さん. さすがに = "even so; even he": さすがに疲れました ("even I/one would be tired").
  • Watch out: さすがに usually precedes a predicate that holds "as you'd expect"; it often carries mild concession ("though even ..."). Place さすがに right before the phrase it modifies.

77. し — "and besides"

  • Plain form+し lists reasons with emphasis: このアパートは静かだし、駅にも 近いです. The second clause often closes with から/で implied.
  • Compare: て/で (91) lists causes neutrally; し adds "and what's more" — often with an implied "so" (hence 〜し、〜から).
  • Watch out: し takes the plain form including だ for な-adjectives/nouns (静かだし). Politeness moves to the end: 静かだし、近いです.

78. そんなに — "so (much)"

  • そんなに+adjective/negative verb = "so / that much": そんなに高くない, そんなに急がないで.
  • Watch out: そんなに is the everyday "to that extent"; あんなに/こんなに are its deictic siblings. It often pairs with a negative ("not that ...") or surprise ("that expensive?").

79–80. それでも and それに — connectives

  • それでも = "even so; nevertheless" (contrast against expectation): 難しいです。それでも、頑張ります.
  • それに = "besides; moreover" (additive): 安いです。それに、おいしいです.
  • Watch out: それでも contrasts; それに adds; それで is the "and so" consequence. それに also appears as the particle に on それ — here it is a fixed connective.

84–85, 106, 116. たばかり, たところ, ているところ, ところ — the "just/process/about-to" family

  • たばかり (84): た-form+ばかり = "just did (recently)": 食べたばかりです. Emphasises recency of the action itself.
  • たところ (85): た-form+ところ = "just did (this moment)": 今、着いた ところです. Marks the just-completed boundary point.
  • ているところ (106): ている+ところ = "in the middle of doing": 料理をして いるところです.
  • ところ (116): dictionary form+ところ = "about to do": 家を出るところです.
  • Watch out: the input form changes the time reference — た→just done, ている→in progress, dictionary→about to. ところ as a noun also means "place"; in these patterns it is the temporal "point". たばかり vs たところ: ばかり is "a short while ago" (allowing longer recency), ところ is "just this instant".

86. 他動詞 and 自動詞 — transitive and intransitive

  • Transitive (他動詞) takes an object marked を; intransitive (自動詞) does not take a を-object. Many N4 verbs come in pairs sharing a kanji: 開ける/開く, 閉める/閉まる, 入れる/入る, 出す/出る, 壊す/壊れる. 先生がドアを開けました (vt) → ドアが開きました (vi).
  • See the verbs foundation for the N5 pairs; N4 adds 壊す/壊れる, 汚す/汚れる, 落とす/落ちる and friends.
  • Watch out: the particle follows the verb's class, not the other way round — you know a verb is transitive because the dictionary marks it so and its object then takes を; が marks the intransitive subject. The direct passive (119) is built on transitive verbs; intransitives take the indirect/adversity passive instead (雨に降られた), which is a different construction.

87. たがる — "wants to" for others

  • V-ます-stem+たがる = "wants to (visible, third person)": 息子は外で遊び たがっています.
  • Compare: がる (16) is the same suffix on adjectives; たい (N5 51) is normally the speaker's own wish, so describing another person's wish uses たがる or ようだ rather than plain たい.
  • Watch out: たがる adds the observable-behaviour nuance; for polite "he says he wants to" learners often report with と言っている instead.

88–90. たら, たらどう, たらいいですか — the たら family

  • たら (88): た-form+ら = "if/when/after": 家に着いたら、電話して. The most flexible conditional; handles one-off events and can end in suggestions/requests.
  • たらどう (89): た-form+らどう = "why don't you (advice)": 病院へ行ったら どうですか.
  • たらいいですか (90): た-form+らいいですか = "what should I do (asking how)": どう行ったらいいですか. The いい marks the desired outcome.
  • Watch out: たら is the た-form + ら, so verbs take their た-form (行ったら). Compare ば (5), なら (54), と (108). たらどう often sounds advisory-to-critical; たらいいですか is a genuine request for guidance.

91. て/で — conjunctive "so; and"

  • The て-form (or で after な-adjectives/nouns, and in the 音便 changes of group 1 verbs) joins clauses: cause (時間がなくて、食べなかった), sequence (起きて、歯を磨いた), or manner (走って行った). で as a conjunctive = で "and so" after nouns/な-adjectives: 雨で、試合が中止になった.
  • See the verbs foundation for て-form formation and sound changes.
  • Watch out: て can imply cause but is not as explicit as ので (N5 72) or から; if the cause must be clear, use those. The て in this entry is the plain conjunction, distinct from the helper-verb て in 92–107.

92–107. て-form auxiliary verbs

The て-form (see verbs foundation) feeds a large family of auxiliaries. All share the shape て-form+helper; the helper carries the meaning.

  • 92, 97, 100, 104. Giving and receiving: てあげる (do for others, favours down/out: 教えてあげる), てくれる (do for me/us: 撮ってくれました), てもらう (have someone do: 持ってもらいました), てやる (do for, casual, to animals/inferiors: 買ってやる). The direction of benefit is the whole game: あげる/やる benefit moves away, くれる toward the speaker, もらう the speaker receives the action.
  • 96. ていただけませんか: て-form+いただけませんか = the ultra-polite "could you please": もう一度言っていただけませんか. It stacks humility (いただく) with a negative question; recognise it as the most polite request form.
  • 93. てほしい: "I want you to": 説明してほしいです. For a thing wanted use がほしい (N5 64); てほしい wants an action from another person.
  • 94, 98. Directional aspect: ていく = do-and-go-on, away from the present point in time/space (続けていく "keep on"); てくる = do-and-return (買ってくる), or something coming toward the present (なってくる, 覚えてくる "have come to know"). てくる with a change-of-state verb means gradual becoming.
  • 95. ていた: past continuous / past resultant state: 何をしていましたか (see ている, N5 43, for the state/progressive split).
  • 99. てみる: "try doing": 食べてみたいです. The trying is real-world experience, not "attempt and fail".
  • 101. ておく: do in advance / leave in a state: 予約しておきます. Spoken contraction とく (予約しとく) — recognise it.
  • 102. てしまう/ちゃう: completion + (often) regret/accident: 忘れてしまい ました ("ended up forgetting"); ちゃう/じゃう is the casual contraction (忘れちゃった). With effort verbs it can also simply mark completion (読み終えてしまった).
  • 103. てすみません: apologise for an action: 遅れてすみません. Compare てよかった (105) for relief.
  • 105. てよかった: "I'm glad that (I did)": 聞いてよかったです. Also 行ってよかった, 来てよかった.
  • 106. ているところ: in the process (see 84–85, 116 group).
  • 107. ても: "even if/though": 高くても、買いたい. Contrast のに (62) which is the "despite (and it matters)" counterpart; ても is neutral concession. てもいい (N5 44) = "may" — the も here is the same concession morpheme.

108. と — "whenever"

  • V-dictionary+と states that whenever [A] happens, [B] reliably follows: 春になると、花が咲きます. The second clause is a fact or habit, not a suggestion or request.
  • Watch out: と cannot end in a request/volition (*家に帰ると、電話して is wrong — use たら 88). Contrast ば (5) for general conditions and たら (88) for one-off events.

109–115. と-phrases: saying, naming, thinking

  • と言ってもいい (109): "one could say": 天才と言ってもいいです. Softens a strong claim.
  • という (110): names/describes a noun: 田中という人, 桜という花.
  • ということ (111): turns a clause into a noun phrase "the fact that": 結婚するということを聞きました. Also 〜ということだ = "I hear that ~".
  • と言われている (112): "it is said that": 建てられたと言われています — the passive of と言う, often for general knowledge.
  • と聞いた (113): "I heard that": 上手だと聞きました — quoted hearsay with 聞く.
  • と思う (114): "I think": 忙しいと思います (also on the N5 page, 76).
  • とか〜とか (115): loose listing "things like": 映画を見るとか買い物を するとか. More casual than など (49).
  • Watch out: という/ということ keep the clause in the plain form; the と is the quotation particle (N5 77). って (118) is the casual contraction of both と and という.

118. って — casual quotative and naming

  • って is the spoken contraction of と (quotation) and という (naming): 佐藤って人 ("a person called Sato"), 明日テストがあるって ("[I heard] there's a test tomorrow"). Often implies hearsay.
  • Register: casual; recognise it in speech, use と/という in writing.

120. は〜が… は — contrast

  • Two は-topics in parallel with が in between draw a comparison: りんごは好き ですが、みかんは好きじゃありません ("apples I like, but mandarins I don't"). は carries the contrastive reading (see particles foundation).
  • Watch out: the contrastive は comes at the expense of が/を in the clause (みかんは, not みかんが). This is a discourse-level pattern rather than a fixed construction.

123. より — "than"

  • N+より = "than": 電車はバスより速いです. Pairs with のほうが for the explicit comparison (バスより電車のほうが速い, N5 33).
  • Watch out: より is also the formal "from" (資料より = "from the document"); at N4 the comparison use dominates. Word order: XはYより + 形容詞.

124. 予定だ — "plan to"

  • V-dictionary/N+予定だ = "plan/intend to": 大阪へ行く予定です.
  • Compare: つもり (N5 53) is intention/will; 予定 is the scheduled plan. つもり emphasises resolve, 予定 the calendar commitment. Negative: 行かない 予定です.

127–129. ようになる, ようにする, ようと思う — the ように family

  • ようになる (127): dictionary/ない-form+ようになる = "come to the point where / become able to": 泳げるようになりました. Marks a change of ability or habit over time.
  • ようにする (128): dictionary/ない-form+ようにする = "make a point of / try to": 早く起きるようにしています. Effortful habit, often in ている.
  • ようと思う (129): volitional+と思う = "am thinking of doing": 留学しよう と思います. The volitional form (22) + と思う (114).
  • Watch out: ようになる emphasises the result (eventually became able); ようにする emphasises the ongoing effort. Both take the dictionary/ない form before ように. ように also appears in 126 as the "like/as" adverb — the よう morpheme is shared but the constructions differ.

132. づらい — "hard to" (subjective)

  • V-ます-stem+づらい = "hard to do" with personal reluctance/embarrassment: 読みづらい, 言いづらい.
  • Compare: にくい (60) is the neutral "hard"; づらい is "painful to do". The register split is the point at N4.

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