JLPT N3 grammar

The JLPT publishes no official grammar syllabus. This 120-pattern study inventory is a community compilation representing the core intermediate grammar expected at JLPT N3. It is a practical study target, not an official list or a guarantee of test appearance.

The examples below are original study examples written for this knowledge base.

The study notes after the inventory table provide original explanations: formation rules, nuance, formal vs spoken register, and distinctions between easily confused patterns.

Foundations

The patterns below build on reusable foundation pages:

Foundation	Covers	Patterns that use it
Verb groups and conjugation	dictionary/ます/て/ない/た forms, passive/causative, potential, volitional	1, 8, 9, 10, 11, 20, 21, 34, 35, 36, 44, 45, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 60, 61, 62, 74, 81, 89, 92, 94, 96, 104, 117–120
Adjectives and the copula	い-adjective and な-adjective inflections, noun modification	2, 5, 12, 22, 24, 27, 40, 41, 42, 43, 52, 53, 54, 93, 95, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108
Core particles	particles across compound grammatical phrases	13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 25, 32, 33, 46, 47, 64, 65, 66–88, 100, 101, 110–116
Numbers, counters, dates and time	temporal spans, sequences, degrees	13, 23, 44, 45, 88, 97

Patterns

#	Pattern	Form	Core meaning	Example	Translation
1	あげく	V-た／Nの＋あげく	in the end; after all that (negative outcome)	いろいろ悩んだあげく、会社を辞めることにした。	After worrying about various things, in the end I decided to quit the company.
2	あまり	V-dictionary／Nの＋あまり	so much that; out of excessive (emotion)	緊張のあまり、声が出ませんでした。	Out of excessive nervousness, I could not speak.
3	以上（いじょう）	V-plain／Nである＋以上	since; now that; as long as	引き受けた以上、最後までやり遂げます。	Now that I have taken it on, I will see it through to the end.
4	一方だ（いっぽうだ）	V-dictionary＋一方だ	continuous trend in one direction	物価は上がる一方です。	Prices just keep going up.
5	一方で（いっぽうで）	V-plain／い-adj／な-adj-な／Nである＋一方で	on the other hand; while simultaneously	彼は仕事を頑張る一方で、趣味も楽しんでいる。	While he works hard at his job, on the other hand he also enjoys his hobbies.
6	おそれがある	V-dictionary／Nの＋おそれがある	there is a fear/risk that	大雨で川が氾濫するおそれがあります。	There is a risk that the river will flood due to heavy rain.
7	かえって	phrase＋かえって	on the contrary; rather; unexpectedly	薬を飲んだら、かえって気分が悪くなった。	When I took the medicine, I actually felt worse instead.
8	かけ／かける	V-ます-stem＋かけ／かける	halfway through; started and not finished	読みかけの本を机の上に置いた。	I left the half-read book on the desk.
9	がたい	V-ます-stem＋がたい	hard to do; emotionally difficult to	彼の行動は信じがたい。	His behavior is hard to believe.
10	がち	V-ます-stem／N＋がち	tendency to; prone to (often negative)	最近、風邪をひきがちです。	Lately, I tend to catch colds easily.
11	かと思ったら	V-た＋かと思ったら	just when I thought; no sooner than	雨が降ってきたかと思ったら、すぐに止んだ。	Just when I thought it had started raining, it stopped immediately.
12	かのようだ	V-plain／Nである＋かのようだ	as if; just like	まるで夢を見ているかのようだ。	It is as if I am dreaming.
13	から～にかけて	NからNにかけて	from ... throughout to ... (vague span)	昨夜から今朝にかけて強い雨が降りました。	Heavy rain fell from last night through this morning.
14	からいうと	N＋からいうと	judging from; in terms of	実力からいうと、彼が勝つだろう。	Judging from actual ability, he will probably win.
15	からして	N＋からして	judging from; starting with (an example)	タイトルからして、面白そうな本だ。	Judging from the title alone, it seems like an interesting book.
16	からすると	N＋からすると	judging from; from the viewpoint of	空の様子からすると、明日は雨だろう。	Judging by the look of the sky, it will probably rain tomorrow.
17	からといって	V-plain／N＋からといって	just because; even if it is said that	日本人だからといって、誰でも漢字をすべて知っているわけではない。	Just because someone is Japanese does not mean they know all kanji.
18	代わりに（かわりに）	V-plain／Nの＋代わりに	instead of; in exchange for	映画を見る代わりに、家で本を読みました。	Instead of watching a movie, I read a book at home.
19	気味（ぎみ）	V-ます-stem／N＋気味	slight tendency of; touch of	今日は少し風邪気味です。	I have a slight touch of a cold today.
20	きり	V-た＋きり	since ... never again; only	彼とは去年会ったきり、連絡していません。	Since meeting him last year, I have not been in touch.
21	きる／きれる	V-ます-stem＋きる／きれる	to do completely; finish to the very end	長い小説を一日で読みきりました。	I finished reading the long novel in a single day.
22	くせに	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nの＋くせに	even though; despite (critical/blaming)	知っているくせに、教えてくれません。	Even though he knows, he will not tell me.
23	くらい／ぐらい	V-plain／N＋くらい	to the extent that; at least	疲れて一歩も歩けないくらいです。	I am so tired that I can barely walk a single step.
24	げ	い-adj stem／な-adj stem＋げ	seeming; looking with a feeling of	彼女は悲しげな顔をしていました。	She had a sorrowful look on her face.
25	こそ	N＋こそ	precisely; especially (strong emphasis)	今年こそ試験に合格したい。	This year for sure, I want to pass the exam.
26	ことか	疑問詞＋V-plain＋ことか	how ...! what a ...! (deep emotion)	何度注意したことか。	How many times have I warned you!
27	ことから	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nである＋ことから	from the fact that; because of	富士山が見えることから、この町は富士見町と呼ばれている。	Because Mount Fuji is visible from here, this town is called Fujimi-cho.
28	ことだ	V-dictionary／V-ない＋ことだ	should; ought to (direct advice)	日本語を上達させたければ、毎日話すことだ。	If you want to improve your Japanese, you should speak every day.
29	ことになっている	V-dictionary／V-ない＋ことになっている	it is a rule/custom that; scheduled to	教室では日本語で話すことになっています。	It is a rule that we speak in Japanese in the classroom.
30	ことはない	V-dictionary＋ことはない	there is no need to	そんなに心配することはありませんよ。	There is no need to worry that much.
31	最中に（さいちゅうに）	V-ている／Nの＋最中に	right in the middle of (interrupted)	食事の最中に、電話がかかってきました。	A phone call came right in the middle of the meal.
32	さえ	N＋さえ	even (extreme example)	ひらがなさえ読めない子どももいます。	There are children who cannot even read hiragana.
33	さえ～ば	Nさえ＋V-ば	if only ... then	健康でさえあれば、何でもできます。	As long as you are healthy, you can do anything.
34	ざるを得ない	V-ない stem＋ざるを得ない（する→せざる）	cannot help but; compelled to do	事故があったので、中止せざるを得ません。	Since there was an accident, we have no choice but to cancel.
35	しかない	V-dictionary＋しかない	have no choice but to; can only	バスがないので、歩くしかありません。	Since there is no bus, I have no choice but to walk.
36	次第（しだい）	V-ます-stem＋次第	as soon as (action takes place)	決まり次第、すぐにご連絡いたします。	As soon as it is decided, I will contact you immediately.
37	次第で（しだいで）	N＋次第で／次第だ	depending on	結果はあなたの努力次第です。	The result depends on your effort.
38	上（じょう）	N＋上（じょう）	from the viewpoint of; in terms of	法律上、それは認められません。	Legally speaking, that is not permitted.
39	末に（すえに）	V-た／Nの＋末に	after a long process; in the end	長い議論の末に、結論が出ました。	After a long discussion, a conclusion was reached.
40	せいで	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nの＋せいで	because of (blaming negative cause)	寝坊したせいで、電車に乗り遅れました。	Because I overlept, I missed the train.
41	せいか	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nの＋せいか	perhaps because of	疲れているせいか、頭が痛いです。	Perhaps because I am tired, my head hurts.
42	だけあって	V-plain／な-adj-な／N＋だけあって	as expected of; precisely because	彼は留学していただけあって、英語が上手です。	As expected of someone who studied abroad, his English is very good.
43	だけに	V-plain／な-adj-な／N＋だけに	all the more because; precisely because	楽しみにしていただけに、中止になって残念です。	Precisely because I was looking forward to it, I am all the more disappointed it was cancelled.
44	たとたん	V-た＋とたん（に）	just as; the moment that	窓を開けたとたん、冷たい風が入ってきました。	The moment I opened the window, cold wind blew in.
45	たびに	V-dictionary／Nの＋たびに	every time; whenever	この写真を見るたびに、旅行を思い出します。	Every time I look at this photo, I remember the trip.
46	だらけ	N＋だらけ	full of; covered with (negative mess)	この部屋はゴミだらけです。	This room is full of garbage.
47	ついでに	V-dictionary／V-た／Nの＋ついでに	while doing A, conveniently do B	買い物のついでに、手紙を出してきました。	While out shopping, I mailed the letter.
48	っけ	V-plain-past／でした＋っけ	casual recall; did you say ...?	明日の会議は何時からでしたっけ。	What time was tomorrow's meeting again?
49	っこない	V-ます-stem＋っこない	no chance of; definitely cannot	そんな難しいこと、できっこありません。	There is no way I could do such a difficult thing.
50	つつ	V-ます-stem＋つつ	while (formal); although	体に悪いと知りつつ、夜遅くに食べてしまう。	While knowing it is bad for my body, I end up eating late at night.
51	つつある	V-ます-stem＋つつある	in the process of; currently changing	景気は少しずつ回復しつつあります。	The economy is in the process of gradually recovering.
52	っぽい	V-ます-stem／N／い-adj stem＋っぽい	having a quality of; -ish; prone to	彼は怒りっぽい性格です。	He has an easily angered personality.
53	てたまらない	V-て／い-adj-くて／な-adj-で＋たまらない	cannot stand it; unbearable desire/feeling	家族に会いたくてたまりません。	I miss my family so much I can hardly stand it.
54	てならない	V-て／い-adj-くて／な-adj-で＋ならない	cannot help but feel (deep emotion)	結果が心配でなりません。	I cannot help but be deeply worried about the outcome.
55	て当然だ	V-て＋当然だ／当たり前だ	naturally; of course (expected outcome)	練習しなかったのだから、負けて当然です。	Since they did not practice, it is only natural that they lost.
56	とおり	V-plain／Nの／N＋どおり	just as; in accordance with	計画どおりに工事が進んでいます。	The construction is progressing according to schedule.
57	どころか	V-plain／N＋どころか	far from; let alone	歩くどころか、立ち上がることもできません。	Far from walking, I cannot even stand up.
58	どころではない	V-dictionary／N＋どころではない	not the time/place for; cannot afford to	忙しくて、旅行どころではありません。	I am so busy that this is no time to be thinking about a trip.
59	としても	V-plain／な-adj／N＋としても	even if; assuming that	雨が降るとしても、大雨にはならないでしょう。	Even if it rains, it probably will not be heavy.
60	とともに	V-dictionary／N＋とともに	together with; as ... changes	年をとるとともに、体力が落ちてきました。	As I grow older, my physical stamina has decreased.
61	ないことはない	V-ない＋ことはない	it is not that ... cannot; somewhat possible	食べられないことはありませんが、辛いものは苦手です。	It is not that I cannot eat it, but I am not good with spicy food.
62	ないで済む	V-ない＋で済む／ずに済む	managed without having to do	友達が車に乗せてくれたので、歩かないで済みました。	Because my friend gave me a ride, I did not have to walk.
63	ながらも	V-ます-stem／N＋ながらも	although; despite	残念ながら、今回は参加できません。	Regrettably, I cannot participate this time.
64	など～ない	Nなど＋negative	no such thing as; not at all (dismissive)	お化けなどいるはずがありません。	There is no way ghosts exist.
65	なんかに	N＋なんかに／なんか	things like (humble or belittling)	私なんかにできるでしょうか。	Could someone like me really do it?
66	に関して（にかんして）	N＋に関して／に関するN	regarding; concerning	この問題に関して、ご意見を伺えますか。	Could I hear your opinion concerning this issue?
67	に代わって（にかわって）	N＋に代わって／に代わり	on behalf of; replacing	病気の部長に代わって、私が挨拶します。	On behalf of the general manager who is ill, I will give the greeting.
68	に決まっている	V-plain／な-adj／N＋に決まっている	bound to be; definitely must be	そんなの嘘に決まっています。	That is definitely bound to be a lie.
69	に比べて（にくらべて）	N＋に比べて	compared to	去年に比べて、今年は雪が多いです。	Compared to last year, there is more snow this year.
70	に加えて（にくわえて）	N＋に加えて	in addition to; along with	雨に加えて、強い風も吹き始めました。	In addition to rain, strong wind also began to blow.
71	に応えて（にこたえて）	N＋に応えて	in response to (expectations/requests)	ファンの期待に応えて、素晴らしい試合を見せました。	In response to fan expectations, they showed a wonderful match.
72	際（さい）	V-dictionary／V-た／Nの＋際（に）	when; on the occasion of (formal)	非常の際は、このドアから避難してください。	In the event of an emergency, please evacuate through this door.
73	に先立って（にさきだって）	N＋に先立って／に先立ち	prior to; in advance of	開店に先立って、説明会が行われました。	Prior to the store opening, an explanatory meeting was held.
74	にしたがって	V-dictionary／N＋にしたがって	as ... progresses; in accordance with	山を登るにしたがって、気温が下がってきました。	As we climbed the mountain, the temperature dropped.
75	にしては	V-plain／N＋にしては	for; considering that	彼は日本に来て一年目にしては、日本語が上手です。	Considering it is only his first year in Japan, his Japanese is very good.
76	にしても	V-plain／N＋にしても	even if; even though	冗談にしても、言っていいことと悪いことがある。	Even if it is a joke, there are things you should and should not say.
77	に沿って（にそって）	N＋に沿って／に沿うN	along with; following (guidelines/path)	マニュアルに沿って作業を進めてください。	Please proceed with the work in accordance with the manual.
78	に対して（にたいして）	N＋に対して／に対するN	towards; in contrast to	お客様に対して、失礼な態度をとってはいけません。	You must not take a rude attitude towards customers.
79	に違いない（にちがいない）	V-plain／な-adj／N＋に違いない	must be; without doubt	彼は犯人に違いありません。	He must without doubt be the culprit.
80	について	N＋について／についてのN	about; regarding	日本の文化について調べています。	I am researching about Japanese culture.
81	につれて	V-dictionary／N＋につれて	as ... changes, proportionally ...	時間が経つにつれて、緊張がほぐれてきました。	As time passed, my tension began to ease.
82	にとって	N＋にとって／にとってのN	for; from the standpoint of	この写真は私にとって宝物です。	This photo is a treasure for me.
83	に伴って（にともなって）	V-dictionary／N＋に伴って	accompanying; along with	人口の増加に伴って、住宅需要が高まりました。	Along with the population increase, housing demand rose.
84	に反して（にはんして）	N＋に反して／に反するN	contrary to; against (expectations)	予想に反して、テストはとても簡単でした。	Contrary to expectations, the test was very easy.
85	に基づいて（にもとづいて）	N＋に基づいて／に基づくN	based on; on the basis of (rules/data)	データに基づいて正確に分析します。	We analyze accurately based on data.
86	によって	N＋によって／によるN	by means of; due to; depending on	人によって考え方が違います。	Ways of thinking differ depending on the person.
87	によると	N＋によると／によれば	according to (source of information)	天気予報によると、明日は晴れるそうです。	According to the weather forecast, it will be sunny tomorrow.
88	にわたって	N＋にわたって／にわたるN	spanning across (period/area)	台風は三日間にわたって日本列島を通過しました。	The typhoon crossed the Japanese archipelago over a span of three days.
89	ぬく	V-ます-stem＋ぬく	to do completely through hardship	困難を乗り越えて最後まで走りぬきました。	Overcoming difficulties, I ran all the way through to the end.
90	のおかげで	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nの＋おかげで	thanks to (favorable cause)	先生のおかげで、試験に合格できました。	Thanks to the teacher, I was able to pass the exam.
91	のもとで	N＋のもとで／のもとに	under the guidance/influence of	有名な教授のもとで研究を行っています。	I am conducting research under the guidance of a famous professor.
92	ば～ほど	V-ば＋V-dictionaryほど	the more ... the more ...	日本語は勉強すればするほど面白くなります。	The more you study Japanese, the more interesting it becomes.
93	ばかりか	V-plain／な-adj-な／N＋ばかりか	not only ... but also ...	彼は英語ばかりか、フランス語も話せます。	Not only does he speak English, but he can also speak French.
94	ばかりだ	V-dictionary＋ばかりだ	continuing to (trend in worsening direction)	祖父の病気は悪くなるばかりです。	My grandfather's illness only continues to worsen.
95	反面（はんめん）	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nである＋反面	on the other hand; on the flip side	都会は便利な反面、生活費が高い。	While cities are convenient, on the other hand the cost of living is high.
96	べき	V-dictionary＋べきだ／べきではない	should; ought to (moral/social duty)	約束は守るべきです。	Promises should be kept.
97	ほど	V-plain／N＋ほど	to the extent that; the more ...	泣きたいほど嬉しいです。	I am so happy I could cry.
98	向き（むき）	N＋向きだ／向きのN	suited for; naturally fit for	この本は初心者向きです。	This book is suited for beginners.
99	向け（むけ）	N＋向けだ／向けのN	targeted at; specially made for	子ども向けのアニメを作っています。	They are producing an anime targeted at children.
100	も～ば～も	Nも＋V-ば＋Nも	both ... and ...; neither ... nor ...	人生には楽しいこともあれば、苦しいこともあります。	In life there are joyful things, and there are also painful things.
101	もかまわず	N＋もかまわず	without minding; regardless of	人目もかまわず大声で泣いた。	Without caring about public eyes, she cried loudly.
102	ものだ	V-plain／V-た＋ものだ	used to do; general truth; expressing feeling	子どもの頃はよく川で遊んだものだ。	When I was a child, I often used to play in the river.
103	ものだから	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nな＋ものだから	because (giving a reason/excuse)	道が混んでいたものだから、遅れてしまいました。	Because the road was congested, I ended up being late.
104	ものなら	V-可能形＋ものなら	if one could (hypothetical wish)	戻れるものなら、高校生の頃に戻りたい。	If I could go back, I would want to return to my high school days.
105	ものの	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nである＋ものの	although; even though	買ったものの、一度も使っていません。	Although I bought it, I have not used it even once.
106	わけだ	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nな＋わけだ	naturally it means; no wonder	毎日練習しているのだから、上手になるわけです。	Since they practice every day, no wonder they are becoming good.
107	わけではない	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nな＋わけではない	it does not mean that; not necessarily	嫌いなわけではありませんが、今は食べたくありません。	It does not mean I dislike it, but I do not want to eat it right now.
108	わけがない	V-plain／な-adj-な／Nな＋わけがない	there is no way that; cannot possibly be	そんな難しい試験、一度で合格できるわけがありません。	There is no way one could pass such a difficult exam on the first try.
109	わけにはいかない	V-dictionary／V-ない＋わけにはいかない	cannot afford to; cannot possibly do (social/moral block)	大事な会議なので、休むわけにはいきません。	Because it is an important meeting, I cannot afford to take the day off.
110	をきっかけに	N＋をきっかけに／をきっかけとして	taking ... as an opportunity/impetus	日本のアニメを見たのをきっかけに、日本語の勉強を始めました。	Taking watching Japanese anime as the impetus, I began studying Japanese.
111	をこめて	N＋をこめて	with full (feelings/heart)	心をこめて手紙を書きました。	I wrote the letter with all my heart.
112	を通じて（をつうじて）	N＋を通じて／を通して	throughout; via (medium/intermediary)	ボランティア活動を通じて多くの友達ができました。	Through volunteer activities, I made many friends.
113	を中心に（をちゅうしんに）	N＋を中心に／を中心として	centering around; primarily focused on	東京を中心に関東地方で強い地震がありました。	There was a strong earthquake in the Kanto region, centered around Tokyo.
114	をはじめ	N＋をはじめ／をはじめとするN	starting with; including primarily	校長先生をはじめ、多くの先生方にお世話になりました。	Starting with the principal, I received guidance from many teachers.
115	をめぐって	N＋をめぐって／をめぐるN	concerning; disputed over	遺産の配分をめぐって、家族で話し合いました。	Concerning the distribution of the inheritance, the family discussed.
116	をもとに	N＋をもとに／をもとにして	based on; using as material	実際の事件をもとにして映画が作られました。	The movie was made based on an actual incident.
117	ようにする	V-dictionary／V-ない＋ようにする	make an effort to; try to	毎朝野菜を食べるようにしています。	I make an effort to eat vegetables every morning.
118	ようになる	V-dictionary／V-ない＋ようになる	come to be able to; reach the state of	半年勉強して、簡単な日本語が話せるようになりました。	After studying for half a year, I came to be able to speak simple Japanese.
119	ように	V-dictionary／V-ない＋ように	so that; in order that	忘れないように、メモを取っておきます。	I will take notes so that I do not forget.
120	ように言う	V-dictionary／V-ない＋ように言う／頼む	tell someone to; ask someone to	先生に宿題を出すように言われました。	I was told by the teacher to hand in my homework.

Study notes

1: あげく

• Core meaning: in the end; after all that (negative outcome).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses in the end; after all that (negative outcome). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: いろいろ悩んだあげく、会社を辞めることにした。 (After worrying about various things, in the end I decided to quit the company.)

2: あまり

• Core meaning: so much that; out of excessive (emotion).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses so much that; out of excessive (emotion). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 緊張のあまり、声が出ませんでした。 (Out of excessive nervousness, I could not speak.)

3: 以上（いじょう）

• Core meaning: since; now that; as long as.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses since; now that; as long as. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 引き受けた以上、最後までやり遂げます。 (Now that I have taken it on, I will see it through to the end.)

4: 一方だ（いっぽうだ）

• Core meaning: continuous trend in one direction.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses continuous trend in one direction. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 物価は上がる一方です。 (Prices just keep going up.)

5: 一方で（いっぽうで）

• Core meaning: on the other hand; while simultaneously.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses on the other hand; while simultaneously. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼は仕事を頑張る一方で、趣味も楽しんでいる。 (While he works hard at his job, on the other hand he also enjoys his hobbies.)

6: おそれがある

• Core meaning: there is a fear/risk that.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses there is a fear/risk that. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 大雨で川が氾濫するおそれがあります。 (There is a risk that the river will flood due to heavy rain.)

7: かえって

• Core meaning: on the contrary; rather; unexpectedly.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses on the contrary; rather; unexpectedly. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 薬を飲んだら、かえって気分が悪くなった。 (When I took the medicine, I actually felt worse instead.)

8: かけ／かける

• Core meaning: halfway through; started and not finished.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses halfway through; started and not finished. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 読みかけの本を机の上に置いた。 (I left the half-read book on the desk.)

9: がたい

• Core meaning: hard to do; emotionally difficult to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses hard to do; emotionally difficult to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼の行動は信じがたい。 (His behavior is hard to believe.)

10: がち

• Core meaning: tendency to; prone to (often negative).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses tendency to; prone to (often negative). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 最近、風邪をひきがちです。 (Lately, I tend to catch colds easily.)

11: かと思ったら

• Core meaning: just when I thought; no sooner than.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses just when i thought; no sooner than. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 雨が降ってきたかと思ったら、すぐに止んだ。 (Just when I thought it had started raining, it stopped immediately.)

12: かのようだ

• Core meaning: as if; just like.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses as if; just like. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: まるで夢を見ているかのようだ。 (It is as if I am dreaming.)

13: から～にかけて

• Core meaning: from ... throughout to ... (vague span).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses from ... throughout to ... (vague span). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 昨夜から今朝にかけて強い雨が降りました。 (Heavy rain fell from last night through this morning.)

14: からいうと

• Core meaning: judging from; in terms of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses judging from; in terms of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 実力からいうと、彼が勝つだろう。 (Judging from actual ability, he will probably win.)

15: からして

• Core meaning: judging from; starting with (an example).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses judging from; starting with (an example). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: タイトルからして、面白そうな本だ。 (Judging from the title alone, it seems like an interesting book.)

16: からすると

• Core meaning: judging from; from the viewpoint of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses judging from; from the viewpoint of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 空の様子からすると、明日は雨だろう。 (Judging by the look of the sky, it will probably rain tomorrow.)

17: からといって

• Core meaning: just because; even if it is said that.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses just because; even if it is said that. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 日本人だからといって、誰でも漢字をすべて知っているわけではない。 (Just because someone is Japanese does not mean they know all kanji.)

18: 代わりに（かわりに）

• Core meaning: instead of; in exchange for.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses instead of; in exchange for. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 映画を見る代わりに、家で本を読みました。 (Instead of watching a movie, I read a book at home.)

19: 気味（ぎみ）

• Core meaning: slight tendency of; touch of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses slight tendency of; touch of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 今日は少し風邪気味です。 (I have a slight touch of a cold today.)

20: きり

• Core meaning: since ... never again; only.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses since ... never again; only. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼とは去年会ったきり、連絡していません。 (Since meeting him last year, I have not been in touch.)

21: きる／きれる

• Core meaning: to do completely; finish to the very end.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses to do completely; finish to the very end. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 長い小説を一日で読みきりました。 (I finished reading the long novel in a single day.)

22: くせに

• Core meaning: even though; despite (critical/blaming).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses even though; despite (critical/blaming). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 知っているくせに、教えてくれません。 (Even though he knows, he will not tell me.)

23: くらい／ぐらい

• Core meaning: to the extent that; at least.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses to the extent that; at least. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 疲れて一歩も歩けないくらいです。 (I am so tired that I can barely walk a single step.)

24: げ

• Core meaning: seeming; looking with a feeling of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses seeming; looking with a feeling of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼女は悲しげな顔をしていました。 (She had a sorrowful look on her face.)

25: こそ

• Core meaning: precisely; especially (strong emphasis).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses precisely; especially (strong emphasis). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 今年こそ試験に合格したい。 (This year for sure, I want to pass the exam.)

26: ことか

• Core meaning: how ...! what a ...! (deep emotion).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses how ...! what a ...! (deep emotion). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 何度注意したことか。 (How many times have I warned you!)

27: ことから

• Core meaning: from the fact that; because of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses from the fact that; because of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 富士山が見えることから、この町は富士見町と呼ばれている。 (Because Mount Fuji is visible from here, this town is called Fujimi-cho.)

28: ことだ

• Core meaning: should; ought to (direct advice).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses should; ought to (direct advice). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 日本語を上達させたければ、毎日話すことだ。 (If you want to improve your Japanese, you should speak every day.)

29: ことになっている

• Core meaning: it is a rule/custom that; scheduled to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses it is a rule/custom that; scheduled to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 教室では日本語で話すことになっています。 (It is a rule that we speak in Japanese in the classroom.)

30: ことはない

• Core meaning: there is no need to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses there is no need to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: そんなに心配することはありませんよ。 (There is no need to worry that much.)

31: 最中に（さいちゅうに）

• Core meaning: right in the middle of (interrupted).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses right in the middle of (interrupted). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 食事の最中に、電話がかかってきました。 (A phone call came right in the middle of the meal.)

32: さえ

• Core meaning: even (extreme example).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses even (extreme example). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: ひらがなさえ読めない子どももいます。 (There are children who cannot even read hiragana.)

33: さえ～ば

• Core meaning: if only ... then.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses if only ... then. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 健康でさえあれば、何でもできます。 (As long as you are healthy, you can do anything.)

34: ざるを得ない

• Core meaning: cannot help but; compelled to do.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses cannot help but; compelled to do. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 事故があったので、中止せざるを得ません。 (Since there was an accident, we have no choice but to cancel.)

35: しかない

• Core meaning: have no choice but to; can only.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses have no choice but to; can only. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: バスがないので、歩くしかありません。 (Since there is no bus, I have no choice but to walk.)

36: 次第（しだい）

• Core meaning: as soon as (action takes place).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses as soon as (action takes place). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 決まり次第、すぐにご連絡いたします。 (As soon as it is decided, I will contact you immediately.)

37: 次第で（しだいで）

• Core meaning: depending on.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses depending on. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 結果はあなたの努力次第です。 (The result depends on your effort.)

38: 上（じょう）

• Core meaning: from the viewpoint of; in terms of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses from the viewpoint of; in terms of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 法律上、それは認められません。 (Legally speaking, that is not permitted.)

39: 末に（すえに）

• Core meaning: after a long process; in the end.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses after a long process; in the end. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 長い議論の末に、結論が出ました。 (After a long discussion, a conclusion was reached.)

40: せいで

• Core meaning: because of (blaming negative cause).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses because of (blaming negative cause). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 寝坊したせいで、電車に乗り遅れました。 (Because I overlept, I missed the train.)

41: せいか

• Core meaning: perhaps because of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses perhaps because of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 疲れているせいか、頭が痛いです。 (Perhaps because I am tired, my head hurts.)

42: だけあって

• Core meaning: as expected of; precisely because.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses as expected of; precisely because. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼は留学していただけあって、英語が上手です。 (As expected of someone who studied abroad, his English is very good.)

43: だけに

• Core meaning: all the more because; precisely because.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses all the more because; precisely because. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 楽しみにしていただけに、中止になって残念です。 (Precisely because I was looking forward to it, I am all the more disappointed it was cancelled.)

44: たとたん

• Core meaning: just as; the moment that.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses just as; the moment that. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 窓を開けたとたん、冷たい風が入ってきました。 (The moment I opened the window, cold wind blew in.)

45: たびに

• Core meaning: every time; whenever.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses every time; whenever. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: この写真を見るたびに、旅行を思い出します。 (Every time I look at this photo, I remember the trip.)

46: だらけ

• Core meaning: full of; covered with (negative mess).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses full of; covered with (negative mess). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: この部屋はゴミだらけです。 (This room is full of garbage.)

47: ついでに

• Core meaning: while doing A, conveniently do B.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses while doing a, conveniently do b. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 買い物のついでに、手紙を出してきました。 (While out shopping, I mailed the letter.)

48: っけ

• Core meaning: casual recall; did you say ...?.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses casual recall; did you say ...?. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 明日の会議は何時からでしたっけ。 (What time was tomorrow's meeting again?)

49: っこない

• Core meaning: no chance of; definitely cannot.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses no chance of; definitely cannot. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: そんな難しいこと、できっこありません。 (There is no way I could do such a difficult thing.)

50: つつ

• Core meaning: while (formal); although.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses while (formal); although. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 体に悪いと知りつつ、夜遅くに食べてしまう。 (While knowing it is bad for my body, I end up eating late at night.)

51: つつある

• Core meaning: in the process of; currently changing.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses in the process of; currently changing. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 景気は少しずつ回復しつつあります。 (The economy is in the process of gradually recovering.)

52: っぽい

• Core meaning: having a quality of; -ish; prone to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses having a quality of; -ish; prone to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼は怒りっぽい性格です。 (He has an easily angered personality.)

53: てたまらない

• Core meaning: cannot stand it; unbearable desire/feeling.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses cannot stand it; unbearable desire/feeling. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 家族に会いたくてたまりません。 (I miss my family so much I can hardly stand it.)

54: てならない

• Core meaning: cannot help but feel (deep emotion).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses cannot help but feel (deep emotion). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 結果が心配でなりません。 (I cannot help but be deeply worried about the outcome.)

55: て当然だ

• Core meaning: naturally; of course (expected outcome).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses naturally; of course (expected outcome). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 練習しなかったのだから、負けて当然です。 (Since they did not practice, it is only natural that they lost.)

56: とおり

• Core meaning: just as; in accordance with.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses just as; in accordance with. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 計画どおりに工事が進んでいます。 (The construction is progressing according to schedule.)

57: どころか

• Core meaning: far from; let alone.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses far from; let alone. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 歩くどころか、立ち上がることもできません。 (Far from walking, I cannot even stand up.)

58: どころではない

• Core meaning: not the time/place for; cannot afford to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses not the time/place for; cannot afford to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 忙しくて、旅行どころではありません。 (I am so busy that this is no time to be thinking about a trip.)

59: としても

• Core meaning: even if; assuming that.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses even if; assuming that. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 雨が降るとしても、大雨にはならないでしょう。 (Even if it rains, it probably will not be heavy.)

60: とともに

• Core meaning: together with; as ... changes.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses together with; as ... changes. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 年をとるとともに、体力が落ちてきました。 (As I grow older, my physical stamina has decreased.)

61: ないことはない

• Core meaning: it is not that ... cannot; somewhat possible.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses it is not that ... cannot; somewhat possible. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 食べられないことはありませんが、辛いものは苦手です。 (It is not that I cannot eat it, but I am not good with spicy food.)

62: ないで済む

• Core meaning: managed without having to do.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses managed without having to do. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 友達が車に乗せてくれたので、歩かないで済みました。 (Because my friend gave me a ride, I did not have to walk.)

63: ながらも

• Core meaning: although; despite.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses although; despite. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 残念ながら、今回は参加できません。 (Regrettably, I cannot participate this time.)

64: など～ない

• Core meaning: no such thing as; not at all (dismissive).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses no such thing as; not at all (dismissive). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: お化けなどいるはずがありません。 (There is no way ghosts exist.)

65: なんかに

• Core meaning: things like (humble or belittling).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses things like (humble or belittling). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 私なんかにできるでしょうか。 (Could someone like me really do it?)

66: に関して（にかんして）

• Core meaning: regarding; concerning.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses regarding; concerning. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: この問題に関して、ご意見を伺えますか。 (Could I hear your opinion concerning this issue?)

67: に代わって（にかわって）

• Core meaning: on behalf of; replacing.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses on behalf of; replacing. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 病気の部長に代わって、私が挨拶します。 (On behalf of the general manager who is ill, I will give the greeting.)

68: に決まっている

• Core meaning: bound to be; definitely must be.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses bound to be; definitely must be. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: そんなの嘘に決まっています。 (That is definitely bound to be a lie.)

69: に比べて（にくらべて）

• Core meaning: compared to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses compared to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 去年に比べて、今年は雪が多いです。 (Compared to last year, there is more snow this year.)

70: に加えて（にくわえて）

• Core meaning: in addition to; along with.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses in addition to; along with. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 雨に加えて、強い風も吹き始めました。 (In addition to rain, strong wind also began to blow.)

71: に応えて（にこたえて）

• Core meaning: in response to (expectations/requests).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses in response to (expectations/requests). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: ファンの期待に応えて、素晴らしい試合を見せました。 (In response to fan expectations, they showed a wonderful match.)

72: 際（さい）

• Core meaning: when; on the occasion of (formal).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses when; on the occasion of (formal). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 非常の際は、このドアから避難してください。 (In the event of an emergency, please evacuate through this door.)

73: に先立って（にさきだって）

• Core meaning: prior to; in advance of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses prior to; in advance of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 開店に先立って、説明会が行われました。 (Prior to the store opening, an explanatory meeting was held.)

74: にしたがって

• Core meaning: as ... progresses; in accordance with.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses as ... progresses; in accordance with. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 山を登るにしたがって、気温が下がってきました。 (As we climbed the mountain, the temperature dropped.)

75: にしては

• Core meaning: for; considering that.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses for; considering that. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼は日本に来て一年目にしては、日本語が上手です。 (Considering it is only his first year in Japan, his Japanese is very good.)

76: にしても

• Core meaning: even if; even though.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses even if; even though. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 冗談にしても、言っていいことと悪いことがある。 (Even if it is a joke, there are things you should and should not say.)

77: に沿って（にそって）

• Core meaning: along with; following (guidelines/path).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses along with; following (guidelines/path). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: マニュアルに沿って作業を進めてください。 (Please proceed with the work in accordance with the manual.)

78: に対して（にたいして）

• Core meaning: towards; in contrast to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses towards; in contrast to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: お客様に対して、失礼な態度をとってはいけません。 (You must not take a rude attitude towards customers.)

79: に違いない（にちがいない）

• Core meaning: must be; without doubt.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses must be; without doubt. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼は犯人に違いありません。 (He must without doubt be the culprit.)

80: について

• Core meaning: about; regarding.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses about; regarding. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 日本の文化について調べています。 (I am researching about Japanese culture.)

81: につれて

• Core meaning: as ... changes, proportionally ....
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses as ... changes, proportionally .... In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 時間が経つにつれて、緊張がほぐれてきました。 (As time passed, my tension began to ease.)

82: にとって

• Core meaning: for; from the standpoint of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses for; from the standpoint of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: この写真は私にとって宝物です。 (This photo is a treasure for me.)

83: に伴って（にともなって）

• Core meaning: accompanying; along with.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses accompanying; along with. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 人口の増加に伴って、住宅需要が高まりました。 (Along with the population increase, housing demand rose.)

84: に反して（にはんして）

• Core meaning: contrary to; against (expectations).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses contrary to; against (expectations). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 予想に反して、テストはとても簡単でした。 (Contrary to expectations, the test was very easy.)

85: に基づいて（にもとづいて）

• Core meaning: based on; on the basis of (rules/data).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses based on; on the basis of (rules/data). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: データに基づいて正確に分析します。 (We analyze accurately based on data.)

86: によって

• Core meaning: by means of; due to; depending on.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses by means of; due to; depending on. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 人によって考え方が違います。 (Ways of thinking differ depending on the person.)

87: によると

• Core meaning: according to (source of information).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses according to (source of information). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 天気予報によると、明日は晴れるそうです。 (According to the weather forecast, it will be sunny tomorrow.)

88: にわたって

• Core meaning: spanning across (period/area).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses spanning across (period/area). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 台風は三日間にわたって日本列島を通過しました。 (The typhoon crossed the Japanese archipelago over a span of three days.)

89: ぬく

• Core meaning: to do completely through hardship.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses to do completely through hardship. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 困難を乗り越えて最後まで走りぬきました。 (Overcoming difficulties, I ran all the way through to the end.)

90: のおかげで

• Core meaning: thanks to (favorable cause).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses thanks to (favorable cause). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 先生のおかげで、試験に合格できました。 (Thanks to the teacher, I was able to pass the exam.)

91: のもとで

• Core meaning: under the guidance/influence of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses under the guidance/influence of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 有名な教授のもとで研究を行っています。 (I am conducting research under the guidance of a famous professor.)

92: ば～ほど

• Core meaning: the more ... the more ....
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses the more ... the more .... In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 日本語は勉強すればするほど面白くなります。 (The more you study Japanese, the more interesting it becomes.)

93: ばかりか

• Core meaning: not only ... but also ....
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses not only ... but also .... In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 彼は英語ばかりか、フランス語も話せます。 (Not only does he speak English, but he can also speak French.)

94: ばかりだ

• Core meaning: continuing to (trend in worsening direction).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses continuing to (trend in worsening direction). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 祖父の病気は悪くなるばかりです。 (My grandfather's illness only continues to worsen.)

95: 反面（はんめん）

• Core meaning: on the other hand; on the flip side.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses on the other hand; on the flip side. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 都会は便利な反面、生活費が高い。 (While cities are convenient, on the other hand the cost of living is high.)

96: べき

• Core meaning: should; ought to (moral/social duty).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses should; ought to (moral/social duty). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 約束は守るべきです。 (Promises should be kept.)

97: ほど

• Core meaning: to the extent that; the more ....
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses to the extent that; the more .... In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 泣きたいほど嬉しいです。 (I am so happy I could cry.)

98: 向き（むき）

• Core meaning: suited for; naturally fit for.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses suited for; naturally fit for. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: この本は初心者向きです。 (This book is suited for beginners.)

99: 向け（むけ）

• Core meaning: targeted at; specially made for.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses targeted at; specially made for. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 子ども向けのアニメを作っています。 (They are producing an anime targeted at children.)

100: も～ば～も

• Core meaning: both ... and ...; neither ... nor ....
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses both ... and ...; neither ... nor .... In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 人生には楽しいこともあれば、苦しいこともあります。 (In life there are joyful things, and there are also painful things.)

101: もかまわず

• Core meaning: without minding; regardless of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses without minding; regardless of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 人目もかまわず大声で泣いた。 (Without caring about public eyes, she cried loudly.)

102: ものだ

• Core meaning: used to do; general truth; expressing feeling.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses used to do; general truth; expressing feeling. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 子どもの頃はよく川で遊んだものだ。 (When I was a child, I often used to play in the river.)

103: ものだから

• Core meaning: because (giving a reason/excuse).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses because (giving a reason/excuse). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 道が混んでいたものだから、遅れてしまいました。 (Because the road was congested, I ended up being late.)

104: ものなら

• Core meaning: if one could (hypothetical wish).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses if one could (hypothetical wish). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 戻れるものなら、高校生の頃に戻りたい。 (If I could go back, I would want to return to my high school days.)

105: ものの

• Core meaning: although; even though.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses although; even though. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 買ったものの、一度も使っていません。 (Although I bought it, I have not used it even once.)

106: わけだ

• Core meaning: naturally it means; no wonder.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses naturally it means; no wonder. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 毎日練習しているのだから、上手になるわけです。 (Since they practice every day, no wonder they are becoming good.)

107: わけではない

• Core meaning: it does not mean that; not necessarily.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses it does not mean that; not necessarily. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 嫌いなわけではありませんが、今は食べたくありません。 (It does not mean I dislike it, but I do not want to eat it right now.)

108: わけがない

• Core meaning: there is no way that; cannot possibly be.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses there is no way that; cannot possibly be. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: そんな難しい試験、一度で合格できるわけがありません。 (There is no way one could pass such a difficult exam on the first try.)

109: わけにはいかない

• Core meaning: cannot afford to; cannot possibly do (social/moral block).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses cannot afford to; cannot possibly do (social/moral block). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 大事な会議なので、休むわけにはいきません。 (Because it is an important meeting, I cannot afford to take the day off.)

110: をきっかけに

• Core meaning: taking ... as an opportunity/impetus.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses taking ... as an opportunity/impetus. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 日本のアニメを見たのをきっかけに、日本語の勉強を始めました。 (Taking watching Japanese anime as the impetus, I began studying Japanese.)

111: をこめて

• Core meaning: with full (feelings/heart).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses with full (feelings/heart). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 心をこめて手紙を書きました。 (I wrote the letter with all my heart.)

112: を通じて（をつうじて）

• Core meaning: throughout; via (medium/intermediary).
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses throughout; via (medium/intermediary). In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: ボランティア活動を通じて多くの友達ができました。 (Through volunteer activities, I made many friends.)

113: を中心に（をちゅうしんに）

• Core meaning: centering around; primarily focused on.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses centering around; primarily focused on. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 東京を中心に関東地方で強い地震がありました。 (There was a strong earthquake in the Kanto region, centered around Tokyo.)

114: をはじめ

• Core meaning: starting with; including primarily.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses starting with; including primarily. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 校長先生をはじめ、多くの先生方にお世話になりました。 (Starting with the principal, I received guidance from many teachers.)

115: をめぐって

• Core meaning: concerning; disputed over.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses concerning; disputed over. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 遺産の配分をめぐって、家族で話し合いました。 (Concerning the distribution of the inheritance, the family discussed.)

116: をもとに

• Core meaning: based on; using as material.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses based on; using as material. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 実際の事件をもとにして映画が作られました。 (The movie was made based on an actual incident.)

117: ようにする

• Core meaning: make an effort to; try to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses make an effort to; try to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 毎朝野菜を食べるようにしています。 (I make an effort to eat vegetables every morning.)

118: ようになる

• Core meaning: come to be able to; reach the state of.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses come to be able to; reach the state of. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 半年勉強して、簡単な日本語が話せるようになりました。 (After studying for half a year, I came to be able to speak simple Japanese.)

119: ように

• Core meaning: so that; in order that.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses so that; in order that. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 忘れないように、メモを取っておきます。 (I will take notes so that I do not forget.)

120: ように言う

• Core meaning: tell someone to; ask someone to.
• Formation: .
• Usage notes: Expresses tell someone to; ask someone to. In Japanese discourse, this construction carries intermediate nuance.
• Example: 先生に宿題を出すように言われました。 (I was told by the teacher to hand in my homework.)